Definition of Fertility:
Fertility refers to the actual reproductive performance of an individual, couple, group, or population. It is commonly measured by the number of live births a woman or a group of women have during their reproductive years (generally between ages 15 to 49).
Fertility is a biological as well as socio-demographic phenomenon, influenced by a variety of social, cultural, economic, and biological factors.
Example: If a woman gives birth to three children during her lifetime, her fertility is three.
Determinants of Fertility:
Fertility is affected by many direct and indirect factors, which can be grouped into the following major categories:
1. Biological Determinants
These are natural, physiological factors that affect a woman’s ability to conceive and bear children.
- Age of the woman: Fertility is highest between 20 to 30 years and decreases significantly after age 35.
- Health and nutrition: Malnourished women or those suffering from diseases may experience reduced fertility.
- Frequency of sexual intercourse: Directly impacts chances of conception.
- Breastfeeding practices: Long periods of breastfeeding may delay the return of ovulation.
- Infertility (male or female): Inability to conceive due to medical or physical conditions.
Impact: These factors determine the biological capacity to reproduce.
2. Socio-Cultural Determinants
Social traditions, cultural norms, and religious beliefs significantly influence fertility behavior.
- Age at marriage: Early marriage results in a longer reproductive span, leading to more children.
- Social status of women: In traditional societies, women are often valued for childbearing. Lower status of women leads to higher fertility.
- Caste and religion: Some religious or caste groups encourage larger families.
- Son preference: Leads to more births until a male child is born.
3. Economic Determinants
Economic conditions of a family or society have a strong influence on fertility levels.
- Poverty and low income: Poor families may have more children as a source of labour or old age support.
- Cost of raising children: In urban and middle-class families, children are seen as economic liabilities, reducing fertility.
- Women’s employment: Working women may prefer smaller families for work-life balance.
4. Educational Determinants
- Female literacy: Educated women tend to marry later, understand family planning, and prefer fewer children.
- Awareness of reproductive health: Educated individuals know about contraceptives and safe childbirth.
5. Availability and Use of Contraceptives
- Access to family planning services: Areas with good healthcare facilities and free distribution of contraceptives show lower fertility.
- Government programmes: Schemes like Mission Parivar Vikas, Janani Suraksha Yojana encourage smaller families.
- Public awareness campaigns: Use of mass media and local campaigns to spread the message of “Hum Do, Hamare Do”.
6. Urbanisation
- Urban families tend to be nuclear, with limited space and higher living costs, discouraging large families.
- Urban women have better access to education, jobs, and healthcare, resulting in lower fertility.
7. Government Policies and Incentives
- Incentives for sterilisation, cash rewards for small families, or priority in housing and jobs may encourage lower fertility.
- States like Kerala and Tamil Nadu have successfully reduced fertility through strong health and education systems.
8. Infant and Child Mortality Rates
- In areas where child mortality is high, parents tend to have more children as insurance.
- When child survival improves, couples may choose to have fewer children.
9. Cultural and Gender Norms
- Patriarchal societies expect women to prove fertility through childbirth.
- Traditional roles promote early marriage and repeated pregnancies.
Summary Table of Fertility Determinants
| Category | Key Factors | Impact |
|---|---|---|
| Biological | Age, Health, Frequency of intercourse | Determines natural ability to conceive |
| Social & Cultural | Age at marriage, Son preference, Religion | Affects number and timing of births |
| Economic | Poverty, Employment, Child-rearing costs | Poor = high fertility; Rich = low fertility |
| Education | Female literacy, Awareness | Leads to delayed marriage and fewer children |
| Family Planning | Contraceptives, Government schemes | Reduces unplanned pregnancies |
| Urbanisation | Nuclear families, Cost of living | Lower fertility in cities |
| Policies | Incentives, Public programs | Helps in population control |
| Child Survival | Infant mortality | Fewer births if child survival is assured |
Conclusion:
Fertility is influenced by a combination of biological, social, economic, and cultural factors. Among all, female education and empowerment play a critical role in reducing fertility rates. In India, effective policies, improved health services, and awareness campaigns are gradually helping to stabilise fertility levels and achieve the goals of population control and sustainable development.